Cartesian Dualism

Cartesian Dualism                 

Introduction 

Cartesian Dualism is a philosophical concept which argues that the mind and body are not identical. According to this philosophical concept, the body and brain consist of extended, divisible substances, while the mind doesn't. As per Descartes's perspective on Cartesian Dualism, bodies (extended things) don't think while minds (thinking things) are non-extended. This affirms that minds don't assume any physical space while bodies are non-thinking things; thus mind can't be related to any physical thing. Although mind and body are different things in an individual, the proper functioning of a human body needs the two entities to work concurrently and in an intricate manner to bring out the effective functioning of a human being. This philosophical idea was developed by Rene Descartes after discovering that both material and immaterial worlds exist in an individual. Basing on his postulation, the mind is made of an immaterial world, and the body is made of the material world, and the interaction of the two brings out a rational being. 

According to dualism, the mind, also known as the soul controls the body's actions; literally, Rene Descartes notes that "sensation and perception involves states of the world affecting states of sense organs, which, in turn affect the brain which causes the mind to be in certain states" (Baker et al., 2002). Therefore, the process of body and mind interaction constitutes Cartesian Dualism, which makes a landmark in philosophy. Thus, this essay analyses the components of Cartesian Dualism prior to exploring arguments for and against Cartesian Dualism.    

Dualism 

Dualism refers to the process through which body and mind interact as immaterial and material substances, respectively. According to Descartes, immaterial and material worlds exist and interact efficiently in nature. In order to offer an illustration of the co-existence of immaterial and material substance in nature, Rene Descartes utilizes human beings to demonstrate the nature of mind and body. As a result, Descartes curiosity is raised since he becomes concerned about "how the immaterial could interact with the immaterial, and how the 'extended' substance of body could house the 'non-extended' spirit called soul, resolved the problem of the incompatibility of the two entities by his dualism" (Baker et al., 2002). 

Before the development of Cartesian dualism, philosophers from Greek believed that the mind and the body are special and distinct entities that are not compatible. However, as a result of his systematic method of doubt, Descartes asserts that because his mind questions the existence of bodies in nature, it plainly affirms that there is a connection between the mind and the material world. Understanding and imaginations in the sixth meditation, as argued by Descartes, ensue from the sensual perception of the material world, thus, affirms that there is dissimilarity and the relation of the mind and body. Basing on his argument, he believes that "the two components which constitute man had an independent origin of a leg or an arm, but the soul was indivisible" (Hawthorne, 2007). The two distinct entities are developed as a result of the different features of the mind and body, while on the contrary, their coordinated roles make them complimentary in expressing the true nature of a human being. As such, the concept of dualism helps elaborate the interaction of the mind and body while at the same time acknowledging the fact that they are not identical rather distinct entities in human beings. 

While attempting to define his identity, Rene Descartes discovers that there is a complex relationship between the mind and the body that allowed him to attain reality in addition to comprehending his surroundings. From his realization, he asserts that because he is able to think and question his existence, it evidently shows that he exists as a mind trying to understand the body.  For Descartes to discover his existence, he formulated a method of systematic doubt whereas postulated by Russell. "Whatever he could bring himself to doubt, he would doubt, until he saw reason for not doubting it … by applying this method he gradually became convinced that the only existence of which he could be quite certain was his own" (Russell, 2001). Because he was sure of his existence, he had the capacity to think and doubt; Rene Descartes finds out the philosophical concept of dualism in human nature in that the mind and body are two constituents that occur consistently in a human being. Based on Cartesian Dualism, the interaction of body and mind occur at the point if pineal body sine it is the only gland in the brain that is not duplicate, which links the body and the brain. 

Being intelligent and independent beings, human beings tend to doubt everything that is told and think about. The reason for such behavior is not paranoia but to have the ability to critically analyze the information provided and come up with a reasonable conclusion as to what is real and whatever human beings can mentally dispose of. This is seen in Rene Descartes's argument about mind and body being distinct, yet they work concurrently. Rene Descartes did an experiment in his head by analyzing every thought with the specific purpose of discovering whatever he could be absolutely sure of. As a result of the doubting process, Descartes concluded that he could doubt everything but the existence of his own mind. This claim seems simple yet very fascinating. Thus, by questioning your own mind, you come up with a thought, and as such, you must concede that you have a mind. Interestingly, when Descartes did the same and questioned existence, he arrived at a different conclusion.  Based on Sober's postulation, it is possible to question the existence of the body since an individual can trust that they are nothing more than a spirit without a body. 

It was important for Descartes to think of this as t brought up the idea of dualism. As such, if you are able to doubt one and cannot doubt the other, then there is a confirmation that the mind and the body are two distinct entities. In support of his argument, Rene Descartes utilizes Leibniz's law to foster his argument. According to Sober, "if A has a property that Blacks then A and B are distinct identities (Sober, 2013). While considering dubitability, Descartes can certainly claim that, at the very least, he possesses a mind and therefore stands by his claim that the mind and the body, if it exists, then both are absolutely distinct. 

Additionally, based on substance dualists' argument, the mind and the body are made of different substances, and the mind is a thinking entity that doesn't have the normal features of “physical objects: size, shape, location, solidity, motion, adherence to the laws of physics among others” (Pereyra, 2008). Substance dualists are grouped into several camps based on how the mind and body relate. This shows that substance dualism majorly focuses on two aspects that is 'substance,' and the other is the 'dualism' of this substance. Normally, 'substance' is associated with by its properties; however, as based on those who believe in substances, it is more than the collection of the properties it owns; it is the 'thing' that possesses them. This affirms that the mind not just a constituent of thoughts, rather that which thinks, an immaterial substance over and above the state of the immaterial. As such, properties are the properties of the object, and therefore, if one property is a dualist, one may question what type of objects possess the non-material properties in which one trusts in. However, one can relate them to human beings, but it is still one that has an explanation of the human being. As such, one may relate them to human beings'  Qua' animals or to the animal's brains. After that, it will be believed that immaterial properties are owned by what is otherwise a purely material thing. However, there is a tendency of one thinking that not only is the mind immaterial, but also the subject that holds them must be immaterial. Therefore, a dualist will believe that mind and body are not one; however, they work concurrently to make a human body function properly. 

According to Nagel's argument, "the body is extended matter: the soul is unextended spirit; when, however, the extended is acted upon by the unextended, some definite pint of interaction is required and it is to be found in the pineal gland" (Nagel). However, Descartes holds in mechanical interaction of the mind and the body to bring out physical movement of the body and controls the actions that human beings carry out. Therefore, the absence of the mind and inefficient interaction between the mind and body can result in unsystematic actions, which confirms that the mechanical interaction is important in the definition of the nature of human beings.  Human beings are the only dualistic beings out of all creatures in the world with the capability to think and act accordingly, unlike other creatures that act based on their instincts and stimuli natures. Thus, dualism in human beings allows them to coordinate their mind and actions accordingly. 

Anti-dualism 

In spite of the fact that Cartesian dualism arguing that the mind and the body are distinct, none of the two can exist without the other, which means they work concurrently as one. Both mind and body are important and complementary constituents that make up human beings, and thus, it is quite hard to separate the two. It doesn't matter if one trusts that the mind is a substance or just a bundle of properties; the same problem arises, which is to demonstrate the nature of the unity of the immaterial mind (Russel, 2001). Actually, it is very hard, in fact impossible, to put the two together or break them into two as separate material substances and immaterial substances in nature. Since they are incompatible, separation or combination of these two entities, material, and immaterial substances, is quite hard. Why should the mind and the body interact in a human being if the mind and body are separate and independent entities? Thus, if they don't work as one, then they should have separated and become distinct as two different entities that do not need to interact for them to main their co-existence. As such, the minds exist as a result of the body, and the body exists because of the mind as based on the concept of Cartesian dualism. 

Additionally, the criticizers of the philosophical concept of Cartesian dualism asserts that the process of the body and the mind interacting cannot be tested in a laboratory; thus, they had to introduce the theological idea arguing that divine power is responsible for the interaction between body and mind. According to Baker et al. (2002), "critics of dualism objected that if soul and body were substances of entirely different natures, the interaction between them was in fact impossible. The postulation that the interaction between the mind and the body takes place at the point of the pineal gland is just but a mere coincidence since there other unduplicated organs in the human body or brain. Also, empirical evidence is not provided to confirm that the pineal body is the point that links the mind and the body. Furthermore, the nature of the mind is too complex and mysterious for one to understand; therefore, it is impossible to comprehend that immaterial and material substance to interact at the pineal gland. Furthermore, Descartes' theory of Cartesian dualism is unable to explain and demonstrate how substances belonging in the mind category are could interact with the substances in the body category. This affirms that the problem would easily disappear if there were no interaction between the two substances. There is a contradiction in Descartes' theory since if the mind and body cannot interact with one another, then there is no meaning in asking how they were able to do so.  

 After deeper consideration of the infallible argument of indubitability, it indeed affirmed that Descartes made a subtle error in his argument. Sober offers an analogy regarding Louis Lane, Clark Kent, and Superman. Louis Lane wishes to be in a marriage with Superman; however, Louis Lane does not want to marry Clark Kent. Thus, Superman and Clark Kent are not identical (Sober, 2013). Thinking superficially using Leibniz's law, it looks correct; however, when you analyze critically, then it is certainly invalid. The two first propositions do not follow the conclusion in the sense that Louis Lane only wants to marry one of them and does not that Superman and Clark Kenta are quite distinct in some way. Based on Sober's analysis, both Kent and Superman have identical properties, and they are not made different according to the fact that Louis Lane only wishes to marry one of them. The same can be related to the mind and the body. According to Descartes's statement, "I can doubt I have a body and I cannot doubt I have a mind," having and doubting are two distinct words (Hoffman, 2002). Thus, doubting the existence of the body and not the mind does not affirm that the mind and the body are distinct and separated into two entities.  This argument, if indubitable, appears to be trying to be arguing the mind has something that the body lacks; however, it is very evident that dubitability is not a property of any object but rather an ability to question propositioning about something. 

Also, it is unlikely that a theory from the 17th century is in any way true. Having said that, there is a high possibility of coming up with some incoherent rebuttals that defend dualism when trying to analyze the objections to Rene Descartes' mind body theory. When the first objection is analyzed to the argument of dubitality, there is no way he could have defended himself. In case of this issue arising, Descartes might have utilized the principle of doubt to help himself. It is probable that he could still have rationalized the concept of the existence of his own mind by his thoughts while still declining the fact that his body exists and coming up to a conclusion that he cannot see anybody else's mind and as such, it appears he is the only one thinking mind and no one else's perspective is important. Such a concept is known as Solipsism (Parnas & Sass, 2001). Also, John Searle unfolds in his video by stating that an individual cannot doubt his mind but rather can doubt everything else in the universe (Philosophy Overdose, 2015). In simple terms, this means that other individuals' thoughts can be questioned. Is there a possibility that dualism can exist if you are the only mind in the universe and any objection to your thoughts are just coming from nothing? It is possible.  Additionally, the protest to the argument of divisibility is on much less stable ground and could be easily refuted by simply arguing on the basis that it is not possible to tell what the future holds and there is no way to state that there will ever be a scientific advancement that associate the mind with the body. 

Also, based on Leibniz's law to prove that mind and body are one, then you will surely find faults in Rene Descartes's theory of Cartesian dualism because you can't explain the mind and the body are distinct while using human belief, and thus, this theory is discredited. Basing on Leibniz's law, if X and Y are similar, then it is expected that whatever you genuinely say about X, you can as well truly say about Y (Phemister, 2006)—postulating that X and are identical means that X=Y, which shows that X and Y are similar. For instance, X and Y are two distinct names for the same thing. Thus, if someone was to be true of X but not true of Y, then would be a logical contradiction, demonstrating that something was true of X and not true of X. Therefore, in relation to Descartes theory, if the mind is similar to the brain, then whatever you can truly say about the mind, then you should be able to say the same about the brain. According to Descartes, the brain, which is a physical thing, and the mind a thinking thing; they are not identical; however, Leibniz's theory has proved his philosophical concept of Cartesian dualism invalid since the theory is contradicting. Unfortunately, Descartes is not able to realize how contradictory his theory was without Leibniz's law. Descartes himself had a great influence in mathematics, and thus it is a wonder that he was not able to discover that his theory was contradictory, or was it because of his bedrock idea in his unbreakable faith in his own believes that stopped from re-evaluating his theory? 

The problem with Cartesian dualism is that it bases its assumption on the fact that the immaterial mind and the material body interact effectively at the point of the pineal body, which is doesn't make sense scientifically since no one can test immaterial substances in the laboratory as they are not compatible with material substances that human beings are able to perceive. Thus, the question of critics still remains, how can one understand and measure immaterial substance. Therefore, for causal relationships to exist between mind and body, dualists should show an empirical and convincing experiment that confirms the relationship between the two entities. As stated by Hawthorn, "It's not clear in what sense such stuff is immaterial, except in the sense that it cannot be integrated into the normal scientific account of the physical world… it is just an aberrant kind of physical stuff (Hawthorn, 2007). Therefore, since there is no empirical evidence and parameters that have the ability to measure the immaterial substances, Descartes theory of Cartesian dualism is discredited as a lot of dualism critics have associated dualism with the efforts of divine power that control the world. 

Conclusion 

In summary, having critically analyzed the opposing arguments of dualism and anti-dualism, Descartes wins as he asserts that thoughts and doubts regarding some things in nature are valid proof of their existence. However, because criticizers of dualism question the existence of the immaterial mind, it certainly follows they question reality and co-existence of immaterial substances. Also, trying to relate Cartesian dualism to the influence of divine power by the Critics of Cartesian dualism is unsatisfying since, just like immaterial substances, divine powers are not testable in the laboratory. As such, Descartes' philosophical concept of Cartesian dualism provides a probable demonstration of the differences between human beings and animals. Based on Cartesian dualism, human beings are the only dualistic animals in the universe who are able to think and act based on their thoughts, thus re-confirming their rational ability.  However, the criticizers of Cartesian dualism have sufficient evidence to pull down the concept of effective interaction between the mind and the body; therefore, Cartesian dualism postulation that anything questioned is actual for it ensues questions in the first instances stands. Thus, anybody who questions Cartesian dualism doubts reality.   

References 

Baker, G. P., Baker, G., & Morris, K. J. (2002). Descartes' dualism. Psychology Press. 

Phemister, P. (2006). The Rationalists: Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz. Polity. 

Parnas, J., & Sass, L. A. (2001). Self, solipsism, and schizophrenic delusions. Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology, 8(2), 101-120. 

Hawthorne, J. (2007). Cartesian dualism. Persons: Human and Divine, 87-98. 

Russell, B. (2001). The problems of philosophy. OUP Oxford. Nagel, T. Property dualism. 

Sober, Elliott.Core Questions In Philosophy, (New York: Pearson, 2013).

Dretske, F., Katz, J. J., Fodor, J. A., Diamond, C., White, S. L., Tye, M., ... & Wang, H. (1990). Representation and Mind. H. W. Putnam, & N. Block (Eds.). MIT Press. 

Philosophy Overdose. (2015). John Searle on Perception & Philosophy of Mind. [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oh2NylJZRHs

 Hoffman, P. (2002). Descartes's theory of distinction. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 64(1), 57-78.

 Pereyra, G. R. (2008). Descartes's substance dualism and his independence conception of substance. Journal of the History of Philosophy, 46(1), 69-89.